China before 1949
China has, as a single kingdom existed since 1700 BC This is longer than any of history's other great empires [1] . The Chinese saw it as "Middle Kingdom" and others as insignificant barbarian states. Therefore, as the emperor of China as well as the entire world's sole ruler. His task, to maintain the natural harmony between man and the universe, was awarded the sky [2] . This system of a despotic emperor exists right up to 1912 [3] . The Chinese have so for thousands of years had an exalted, divine and autocratic leader.
In the Empire of China, the majority of the population respectively, while the owner and tenants. Both were subject to a neighboring landowner, who could find to charge up to 50% of the crop in taxes. While the peasants could, at any time, called for a large construction project such as. The Great Wall of China. This subclass then lived a hard life, which was exacerbated by smaller and smaller plots as a result of a doubling of population between 1750 and 1850. In contrast to this class, with a living standard far cry higher than the peasants, were the upper class, which consisted of landowners and mandarins, Chinese officials. [4] The great divide between these two classes created fertile ground for the insurgency as seen in recent Chinese history. Nianoprøret In 1853, in 1855 and 1862 Muslim rebellion respectively south and west and China in 1851 Taipingoprøret, which is one of world history's bloodiest conflicts, where many millions of people die [5] . All these rebels will be killed by the dynasty that first vanquished in 1911 by a rebellion led by Sun Yat-sen. This produces the Republic of China. Democracy is it not to, for Yuan Shih-kai, a military man who has been appointed provisional president declares Kuomintang party, which has just been substantial majority after China's first parliamentary elections in 1913, illegally. Yuan Shih-Kaiser's death in 1916, beginning at the "warlord period" in which local Generals' struggles for power splitting the country. This period ends until 22 years later [6] .
Chinese Communist Party (PPP) will, inter alia, Mao Tsu-tung, founded in 1921. From Moscow gets the Communist International (Comintern) in 1922, PPP to initiate cooperation with Kumintang party. The idea of this collaboration is to first get the imperialist powers out of China with a national revolution, then to implement a communist revolution [7] . When Chiang Kai-shek in 1925, becoming leader of Kumitang takes a lot violent swing to the right, and in 1927, shortly after he conquered Beijing and has the bulk of China under him, he breaks with PPP [8] . Communists are expelled from the cities to the countryside, where they set up a number of Soviet republics. One of these, Kiangsi, with Mao and Chu Te in Management [9] . But when Chiang Kai-shek, in 1934, initiating a violent attack, the Communists forced to abandon their newly republics. They begin the long march, which leads them to Yenan, through 10.000km of China's most inaccessible mountains. The force that starts the march will be reduced by 80-90% before they reach the goal one year after [10] . Here are Mao, who is appointed KKPs party chairman, the opportunity to test some of its political, social and economic models in practice. Meanwhile, the long march led to greater sympathy for the PPP among the population, as more farmers hear about the Communist land reform policy. The communist army proves simultaneously disciplined and honest, unlike its opponents. In 1936 becomes Chiang Kai-shek forced to call off the offensive against the Communists when he realizes that the only way he can beat back the invading Japanese, is a global offensive to both Kumitang and PPP. In those areas the Communists liberator introduce the reforms and their getting in the way much support behind him. When the war ends in 1945, many Chinese see them as liberators, and they ride with the nationalist wave that moves against China. This wide support among people looking for Communists final victory over Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese People's Republic established in 1949 [11] .
1949 People's Republic of creation
Between 1949 and 1955 growing numbers of members of PPP with more than double to 10 million. The party will need to obtain a large number of new members to manage the large country. Many of the former officials are also on their lines to keep roughly in order. This results in many new party members who are not really communists, but just have joined to share in the benefits it carries with it. Later, by cleansing campaigns, expelled many of these members. To hold the country together waiting lot also with too many socialist reforms. [12] China's policy in the reconstruction period was to get the economy and food production in time before the initiation of major structural changes. However eliminated landowner class and the Communist land reform from the civil war years up to, will be implemented throughout China. Earth is parceled out to local farmers, who then owns their own fields. This includes but not for long, for the first five year plan (1953-1957) goes farms with agricultural collectives [13] .
PPP structure
The party is built like a pyramid [14] with the National Party Congress at the top. Each step of this pyramid consists of a party committee, chosen by a party conference or at a party meeting. The Committee selects a party secretary, but must be approved from above. The National Party Congress consists of over 1000 members who are elected in a 5 years period of the various provincial congresses. The Congress party should formally meet once a year, this will not be respected. Until the mid 1980s, there is not perish no actual discussion in this great assembly, which in reality has no power. Central Committee (which is formally elected by party congresses, consisting of around 100 members) elect the Politburo, consisting of between 12 and 24 members. This is the Politburo, which has the real power in the party and therefore in China. In 1956 created in the Politburo Standing Committee, which brings power with him. This committee consisted of Mao, four deputy chairmen of the Party and Deng Xiaoping. Later, Lin Biao also in this Committee. The decisions taken by the Politburo and the Standing Committee, implemented through the Secretariat [15] .
The first Five Year Plan
The idea of a five-year plan had the Chinese got from the Soviet Union, which had implemented such plans as far back as the 1920s. The contents of the Chinese first five year plan was indeed heavily influenced by the Stalinist development strategy. As in the Soviet would introduce a planned economy, where control of production lay with the government. It was about getting the industry started. And with Russian assistance succeeded indeed to expand production to increase by 130%. Although there are collectivisation of agriculture, increasing production here only with the average 3.8% per year between 1953 and 1957 [16] .
Let 100 flowers bloom
In 1956, Mao said "Let 100 flowers bloom, let the 100 schools of thought compete". Lot of thought is that the intellectuals should have more freedom to express their views. It is intended that artists and scientists to express their opinions on the deficiencies in the system who looked at this way can later be repaired. But the situation runs out of control, and there are demands for independence from political parties PPP. Mao's ideas are criticized, and the party is being criticized for their control over the universities' academic work. This results in anti-right campaign, initiated by the party, which stamps around. 550,000 intellectuals as "right-dissidents". Many of these dissidents belonging to the right party, and because many of them are sent to the country or moved, the campaign used by other party members to rise in the hierarchy. Among the population, many favor against the persecution of intellectuals [17] .
The great leap forward
The first five year plan had increased production in the industry significantly, but limped after agriculture. Within the party there were two different views on how this problem could be solved. One, more moderate, went out to major investments in fertilizer plants and agricultural machinery. The second, which Mao and Lin Biao backed up on, was more radical. Mao felt that the Soviet model of top-down was ideal, and he advocated greater decentralization. At the same time, he was impressed by the success of collectivisation, which had been introduced years earlier. Mao's plan was to reorganize agriculture in larger units and thereby create a larger production. At the same time he went to the industry was distributed throughout the country and that all should take part in production. [18]
Anti-right campaign, which was at its height just as the decision on which model one should choose for the future led many in the party for fear of being branded a right-dissidents, supporting up on Mao's model. And in 1958 began the decentralization of industry and a stronger collectivisation of agriculture. It was created so-called public municipalities, consisting of average 5000 households across China. In these people municipalities established nurseries, playgrounds and common canteens. Population was, after military pattern, organized in production teams. Many believed that families were a relic of the past, children were placed in institutions and schools. The great leap forward was the beginning of a communist society, where one provider within their abilities and enjoy as needed [19] .
Across China, farmers were organized to giant overrislingsprojektor and in 1958 was 100 million peasants allegedly made 7.8 million hectares of fertile farmland. Agricultural production would also appear to rise very unrealistic. The production of cereals fell from the reported 375 million tonnes by nearly half. This was all reported a much bigger production than was possible, for fear of being judged as right-dissidents [20] . Concomitant bony many Chinese, regardless of what else they worked with, with self-built blast furnaces to produce iron. This iron is found later to be of such poor quality that it can not be used for anything. The consequence of the Great Leap Forward was a massive famine, which mainly affected the rural population where about 20 million Chinese died. Mao would not admit his mistake in the Great Leap Forward and then Peng Dehuai criticized him for it, Mao accused him of being right-opportunist and had him earmarked as defense minister. Lin Biao took his place. But the situation deteriorated, and Mao's support within the party became less. In 1959, he was compelled to give the president Liu Shaoqi. He was seated as chairman of the party. [21]
Liu Shaoqi trying to get the country back on track by stopping many of the projects were introduced during the Great Leap Forward. The central administration will turn more control over development, private plots return, the many small local industrial production, as furnaces, are shelved and instead of mass mobilizations will be more emphasis on scientific methods to increase agricultural production. [22]
Cultural Revolution
In 1964 set up the party leadership with Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping in the head, pushed by Mao, known femmands group, led by Peking Mayor Peng Zhen, to coordinate efforts in the third Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. [23] In November 1956 attack Mao, through a Shanghai journalist named Yao Wenyuan, the author Wu Han. Wu He has written a play which, after Mao's view, is a criticism of his dismissal of Defense Minister Peng Dehuai in 1959. Besides being a writer Wu He is also deputy mayor of Beijing and a close friend and colleague of the leader of the group femmands Peng Zhen. Mao's attack on Wu Han is not an isolated attack on a writer but an attack on femmands group. [24] Through the Central Committee succeeds Mao, to send out a circular which femmands group is allocated, and there is formed a new group for the continuation of the Cultural Revolution. This group, Mao-group membership includes of Mao's secretary Chen Boda, Keng Sheng and Mao's wife Jiang Qing. They have quickly taken over by the mass media, and their violent campaign of the Cultural Revolution spread to universities and schools.
In May 1966 bring a philosophy professor who sympathizes with Mao, a vægavis up at university in Beijing. The attack on the university administration. Since Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi makes "work teams" in order to stifle unrest, it has the opposite effect, and more and more radical teachers and students turn against party members. Mao sheep poster content published and unrest spread to other universities and between schools [25] . Everywhere in the college are formed so-called Red Guards, who "will defend Mao and his thought against all enemies?" [26] . Central Committee publishes in August the same year a directive with 16 points on the Cultural Revolution. This Directive fed for vigilance against those who would seek to undermine the revolution from within, but while trying to stabilize the situation by the request to show "special consideration" to the scientists and technical personnel, and to debate out of words rather than violence. But rødgardistbevægelsen grow, and in August organizes Mao huge parades in the Forbidden City in Beijing, where the young Guards can meet their "great teacher, great leader, great command and great coxswain." These gigantic mass mobilizations organized through Lin Biao, the military. At year end, the situation is unstable highest. All schools and universities are closed, and youth are invited to the destruction of old buildings, temples and artefacts and to attack teachers, school, party leaders and parents. This leads to, often innocent, accused of being feudal or reactionary and large meetings tortured until they plead guilty. Many thousands are beaten to death or commit suicide during these meetings. The meetings take place also at the highest level, and thus cleansed both Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaping from the lot. [27] When they are out, added Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyan, which all belong to the cultural revolutionary group in the Politburo. At the same time, Lin Biao brought up the hierarchy to number two in the bureau [28] . The various rødgardistgrupper starts now fighting each other, and although Mao in 1967 trying to stop them fighting flare up again in 1968. Arsenal is sacked, and the army are conflicting orders on whom to support. The forces of Mao has been unleashed, proves not to be controlled. In some cities, which develops the full-scale war between the various rødgardistfraktioner. [29] The situation is not sustainable, and in 1968 Mao gives the order to disband rødgardistgrupperne. Rødgardisterne being sent to the countryside for part of their training, to work as peasants. Army people are now increasingly put into administration at all levels. In April 1969, at the 9th Party Congress declared the Cultural Revolution have been executed. But the cultural revolution is still in important key positions, including the Politburo and the propaganda apparatus, which they repeatedly launch campaigns. In 1971 Lin Biao suddenly disappear from newspapers and news releases after allegedly having formed a conspiracy, as in a coup in September would assassinate Mao and Lin Biao paste as new ruler of China. The plan is revealed, and Lin Biao trying to flee to the Soviet Union by plane. He rushes down over Mongolia and die. [30] Zhou Enlai, who still sits as head of government, the sheep in 1973 Deng Xiaoping rehabilitated and reinstated as deputy prime minister. And although the cultural revolutionary groups, with Jiang Qing as the frontman, still sitting on the propaganda apparatus succeeds Zhou Enlai to rehabilitate a large number of cadres. Mao himself is suffering from Parkinson's, heart attack and is in great periods sidelined. At the same time losing the group about the Cultural Revolution, more and more ground to Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping, who at the 4th National People's Congress in January 1975 to publish a program which included: modernization of agriculture, industry, defense and science. On top of it adopted a new constitution, which the peasants have the right to private plots and sideline sale on the open market. In 1976 Zhou Enlai dies. Hua Guofeng, a compromise between the moderates and the radicals, will be put in as prime minister. On 9 September 1976 death of Mao, and 6 October is Jiang Qing and her group were arrested. They are called gang of four and is blamed for everything bad that has happened in the last 10 years [31] .
Mao's intentions with the Cultural Revolution
After the failure of the Great Leap Forward was Mao's policy of driving out on a siding. Mass mobilization, decentralization, public municipalities, collective farming and common canteens were slowly abandoned, and the things that private plots were re-introduced. While Mao still has something to say, his role is now mostly as a figurehead for the regime, power is now in the Deng Xiaoping, Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai. Mao's official view of the cultural revolution was to realize a revolution in what Marxist theory calls the superstructure. The Revolution of 1956 was implemented in the economy, which calls the theory base, but now it was then extended to the superstructure, which is culture and politics. Mao believed that a socialist society does not just occur because a Communist Party has arisen. Old values and traditions will continue to exist. Mao stresses the revolutionary development between two lines, he respectively calls the centralist, bureaucratic and revisionist line, which places emphasis on excellence and economic growth, and the revolutionary mass line which is about the masses initiative and political awareness [32]. He believes that after the Great Leap Forward emphasis has been on the first, and it is some of what he would do away with the Cultural Revolution. Mao's age may also have played in - in 1966 he turns 73 and may have thought that if he should come to do something before his death, it was high time.
Mao knew that he had the Chinese people and, through Lin Biao, the army with him. Years up to his popularity has grown enormously, almost to the divine. He was described as "red, red sun in our hearts [33] and in a typical Chinese village, Chen, was to think so far as to hold a kind of worship before each meal, in honor of Mao. Here recited down this little prayer:
"We respectfully expressing our desire to continue living in the reddest sun in our hearts, the great leader Chairman Mao. And just as Vice-Chairman Lin Biao: he had to maintain good health forever. We have been liberated by the land reforms and will never forget the Communist Party. We will always follow Chairman Mao on the revolution come! [34] "
The people therefore believe that Mao is a form of human and infallible. This is Mao user, through the Cultural Revolution, to have eliminated its opponents, implemented its policy and put himself in the power center. Mao's actions suggest that he had no qualms about using such large masses in his political struggles. And although many were tortured and killed in the chaos created by rødgardisterne, I think that Mao looked back on the Cultural Revolution as a victory. Since the Cultural Revolution in 1969 declared completed, sits Mao and his followers in the leading positions in the party.
Consequences of the Cultural Revolution
From 1966 until Mao's death in 1976, we now define the years of the Cultural Revolution, died 3rd million people as a consequence of Mao's actions. Additional 100 million, or one ninth of the population were exposed to suffering in one form or another [35]. They could be accused of being reactionary and be publicly humiliated and tortured for offenses like being educated or otherwise meeting "better" than others.
A month after Mao's death arrested the "Gang of Four", which consisted of Jiang Qing and three of her closest supporters. And in the coming years, more and more politicians who were condemned during the Cultural Revolution, rehabilitated. Together with four gang are many other politicians who rose in the hierarchy during the Cultural Revolution, pushed away by people like Deng Xiaoping. Over the next year, many of the reforms which occurred during the Cultural Revolution, dropped, and a new policy which abandoned the collectivization of agriculture, gave factory managers more autonomy and liberalized culture, introduced [36].
In the so-called program of the Cultural Revolution, which was issued by the Central Committee, declares, inter alia, Education and culture:
"... Currently, it is our goal to struggle against and crush those persons in authority who have embarked on the capitalist road, to criticize and refute the reactionary bourgeois, academic "authorities" and the bourgeoisie and all other yield class ideology and to transform education, literature and art and all other parts of the superstructure that do not correspond to the socialist economic base .. "- Central Committee Decision on the Cultural Revolution, 8th August 1966 [37]
In the 10 years the Cultural Revolution lasted were almost all educational institutions closed and many teachers and intellectuals sent to labor camps. Since Mao get stopped rødgardistbevægelsen, he sends while almost all of China's youth away from schools to the countryside. This results in that we now have a generation in China, where almost no one has an education.
Under the slogan to attack the four "old" (old customs, old habits, old culture and old thinking), presented rødgardisterne historic buildings in ruins. Had it not been for the army, the Forbidden City would probably not exist today. Along with buildings, were quantities of art objects, books, records and anything else that could symbolize the past, destroyed. Large parts of the Chinese irreplaceable heritage went under in those years.
In 1980 initiated a trial of four gang accused of having "directed against suspects and prosecuted 729,511 people" and persecuted 34,800 "leading to death." [38] All are found guilty. In this way you can protect Mao's personality by giving the blame for everything bad that has happened, to a large gang of four persons. Even today, China's official attitude towards Mao that 70% of what he did was good and 30% poor [39]. With the 70% refers to the great work he did up to the People's Republic of creation in 1949. While the 30% refers to his role in the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution. This breakdown makes a lot of time to criticize the Cultural Revolution and Mao shelf. Official Chinese history also shows this division of Mao's life. If you visit the Mao museum in Shaoshan, you will be introduced to every little detail until the year 1963, when then nothing until his death [40]. The same will you discover if you look at a Chinese school textbook in history. Here is the same terrible things that happened in China under Mao, also failed [41]. The reason for the party in this way suppresses the terrible things that happened under Mao, it may be that without him, the government loses its power. If the party accepts Mao's ideology was wrong, they can not avoid also admit that the basis for their existence is wrong. Therefore, it is so smart with the division into two "Maoer" a good that created the ideology and founded the republic and a less good, as did some stupid things in 60-70s and otherwise suppressed. That is why Mao's cult worship, which still exists in China, and that is why you, if you visit the Tiananmen Square in Beijing, will still see a large painting of Chairman Mao and a queue of Chinese who are waiting to see his embalmed body.
Cultural Revolution as seen from the West
During the Cultural Revolution ends Chinese foreign policy and diplomacy to function normally. Foreign Ministry in Beijing was occupied by rødgardister and is in great periods of paralysis. Embassies around the world are now used most to disseminate propaganda about the new socialist China [42]. Meanwhile devastate Vietnam War, which China supports the Viet Cong, not far away. Propaganda and the great disgust of U.S. involvement in Vietnam will have many in the West, mostly on the left to look at China in a positive light. Here is a country that chooses a different path than the capitalist and seems to do well. World Health Organization and the World Bank says are both positive on China's achievements in 1973 and expresses the Danish foreign minister, after an official visit to China, admiration towards the country's social progress. [43] It is "in" keeping with the Chinese. In Denmark, shooting associations such as the "Association Friendship with China" and "Society for Cultural Relations with China" (the later friendship association) up. All and solidarity with the Cultural Revolution and China. On the left wing in Denmark creates two poles: the Maoist and Soviet communist. While attention to the war in Vietnam grows more and more begin to see the Maoist model of armed revolution, more relevant than the Soviet Communist idea of peaceful coexistence [44].
During the Cultural Revolution will be released in Denmark many travelogues. Here describes the Danes, who with myself have seen the revolution, their experiences. Most of these books idylliserer China strong, and it may be several reasons for this. China during this period a very closed country, and it is very difficult to get admission to it. Therefore, Chinese are very precise control who they will let in and who must be away. In this way the group of people who already have expressed criticism of the regime. At the same time by the persons entering the country know that if they later publish anything that expresses itself negatively on what they have experienced, they will simply not be able to visit the country again. When visitors arrived in the country, they were presented to the grand operas, were served sumptuous banquets and stayed at the finest hotels. Throughout their visit was carefully planned, and there was no room for anything impromptu. It was planted in a bus and had looked through a hectic program of kindergartens and public kitchens. The institutions, one was presented, rose high above the standard, but was often used in recent reports as a general picture of China. These trip reports are one of the main sources of information the general Danish population's cultural revolution, and since these descriptions are so positive about the regime, is the general attitude equally [45]. One expression of this can be seen as the famous Svanemøllen Collective in Hellerup in 1970 changes its name to Mao's desire. Another example of the idealization that is about Mao and the Cultural Revolution, is because in a three-page obituary of Mao in the information, surrounded by a rim is sure: "Now Mao's work completed, perhaps the mightiest of our century, [46 ].
Only with Lin Biaos decline in 1971 and particularly with the arrest of four gang 1976, many Westerners to be able to see that the dreams and the ideology of their perception of China was based, has very little to do with reality.
[1] K.2 p.8 [2] K.3 p.5 [3] K.2 p.8 [4] K.2 p.10 [5] K.3 says approx. 20 million. (p.7) while K.5 say up to 30th million. [6] K.3 p.10 [7] K.2 p.13 [8] K.2 p.14 [9] K.5 p.7 [10] K.5 (p.7) and k. 3 (p.15) says about 20% while the K6 (s.442) says 11% [11] K.5 p.7-8 [12] K.2 p.18 [13] P. K.3 16 [14] See Appendix 1 [15] K.2 p.19 [16] The entire section K.2 p.23-24 & K.5 p.9 [17] The entire section K.2 p.28 [18] Entire Section K.2 p. 39-40 [19] the whole section (before) K.2 p.40-41 and K.5 p.10 [20] K.6 s.600 [21] The last K.5 p.10 and K2 p.42-45 [22] The entire section K.5 p.10 [23] K.2 p. 58 & 60 [24] K.2 p.61 and K.6 s.623 [25] Eventually. K.2 p.61 and K.6 p.39-40 [26] K.2 p.61 [27] The last K.6 s.626-627 [28] at the end. K.2 p.62 [29] From last K.2 p. 64-65 [30] For the last K2 p.65-67 and K6 s.636 [31] For the last K2 p. 68 -69 [32] All this with Mao's theoretical views K.1 p.1 & K.2 s.58.59 [33] K.7 p.14 [34] K.6 s.635 [35] K.8 P. 621 [36] K.2 s.95-96 [37] K.2 p.84-85 [38] K9 s.226 [39] K.10 [40] K.10 [41] K.11 [42] From the start K.2 s.77.78 [43] K.11 p.1 [44] K.12 and K.11 p.1 [45] the concrete details of the whole section: p.1-K.11 22 [46] K.14
